On the tea cultivation in western Ssuch'uan; and, The tea trade with Tibet viâ Tachienlu

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ON THE

TEA CULTIVATION

IN WESTERN SSUCH'UAN

AND THE

Tea Trade with Tibet via Tachienlu.

BY

A. DE ROSTHORN.

WITH SKETCH MAP.

LONDON :
L U Z A C & Co.

(Publishers to the India Office)

46, GUI-: AT RUSSELL STHEKT, W.C.

1895.

ON THE

TEA CULTIVATION IN WESTERN SSUCH'UAN

AND THE

TEA TRADE WITH TIBET

VIA TACHIENLU.

UNIVERSITY

ON THE;

TEA CULTIVATION

IN WESTERN SSUCH'UAN

AND THE

Tea Trade with Tibet via Tachienlu.

BY

A. DE ROSTHORN.

WITH SKETCH MAP.

LONDON :
L U Z A C & Co.

(Publishers to the India Office)

46, GREAT RUSSELL STREET, W.C.

1895.

€CVERSITTJ
&F J

ON THE

TEA CULTIVATION IN WESTERN SSUCH'UAN

AND THE

TEA TRADE WITH TIBET

VIA TACHIENLU.

INTRODUCTORY.

The Tea Trade between China and Tibet, which
j» t

takes place at the frontier town of Tachienlu, has
attracted the attention of Foreign travellers since an
early date. It is indeed impossible not to be struck
with the endless caravans of yacks, laden with the
elongated packages called (C bricks", trundling along
over roads which defy description, — if one happens to
be travelling in the regions beyond that city, — or with
the interminable chain of porters, staggering under
their astonishing loads across two by no means con-
temptible mountain ranges, — on the Chinese side of
it. Hence, from M. Hue who sighs ua ce qu'une
civilisation corrompue et sans croyance a su faire
de 1'homme cree a 1'image de Dieu, de I'homme
presque egal aux anges", etc., (L'Empire Chinois, I.
p. 17), down to Mr. W. W. Rockhill, the latest ex-
plorer in these parts (The Land of the Lamas p. 277
& seq.), who takes a more sober view of the matter,

6 TEA CULTIVATION IN WESTERN SSUCH'UAN

every traveller has gone into the subject more or less
deeply, and a great deal of valuable information has
been gathered in this manner, especially by the Abbe
Desgodins and Messrs. Baber and Rockhill.

Remarkable, however, as must be in every respect
a trade, which is carried on under such enormous dif-
ficulties and yet apparently with so much success, it
has become of late years a subject of. more than ordi-
nary interest on account of the commercial and poli-
tical questions it involves. It was a pet theme with the
late Mr. Baber, one of the shrewdest observers and
most amiable of writers, that Tibet, preeminently a tea
consuming country, should, by right of contiguity, be
supplied with that staple from Assam, or India gener-
ally. It is true that, latterly, through the enquiries of
Mr. Rockhill and others, the opinion has gained ground,
that the Indian teas are unsuited, or not as well suited
as the Chinese product, for the consumption in Tibet,
owing to their greater astringency and headiness (The
Land of the Lamas, p. 281, Note 2); but, the hope of
being able yet to supersede China in her commercial
supremacy in Tibet, which rests entirely on the tea
trade, and perhaps the knowledge also, that the com-
mercial dependence of that country is a political lever
of no small importance, have no doubt made the open-
ing of Tibet on the Indian side to appear to Englishmen
highly desirable, while to the Chinese they have fur-
nished an excellent pretext, if not a powerful motive,
for refusing their assent to any proposals in that
direction.

AND THE TEA TRADE WITH TIBET.

I have before me quite a literature on the subject
under discussion. The figures contained in the various
reports and papers however, though sometimes remark-
ably near the truth, are, mere guesses or fragments
of verbal information. In 1891, when I made the
journey from Tachienlu via T'iench'uan to Yachou, I
had opportunities for observing the more outward and
ostensible features of the trade ; and, continuing to
pursue the subject afterwards, I was able, through
exceptional facilities, to bring together sundry details
not hitherto commonly known, as well as statistics
which, though partly anticipated, are at any rate well
authenticated and entirely trustworthy. These I am
now induced to publish in the hope that, under the
circumstances alluded to, they may prove opportune
and interesting.

A question of purely theoretical interest, which had
occupied me even before I started on my journey, is,
whether the tea plant does or does not grow wild in
Western Ssuch'uan. Various passages occurring in
both native and foreign works (Cooper, Baber, Gill)
had led me to suspect that it does. That shrubs, if
neglected and overgrown, may "run wild" in a soil
and climate so favourable to their growth, is highly
probable. We must also leave out of consideration
those curious groceries mentioned by Mr. Baber at the
end of his paper, the sweet variety (t'ien-ctia) sold
on Mount Omei, and the white tea (pe-cti a or hsiie-ch'a)
also mentioned by Mr. Rockhill (Loc. cit.), — the
former, because it is simply a deception practised by

TEA CULTIVATION IN WESTERN SSUCH'UAN

the priests, who soak the ordinary tea leaves in a
solution of sugar before roasting them ; the latter,
because it is not tea at all, but a kind of lichen of local
occurrence. The question then remains, whether the
ordinary tea plant does or does not belong to the indi-
genous flora of the region referred to. I can only say
that I have seen none growing wild, and that all the en-
quiries I made tend to confirm my observation. It
is true, as will be seen, that the "tea" made up for the
Tibetan market, consists but for the smallest part of
genuine tea leaf ; but the brushwood employed for
admixture, which is probably responsible for the "wild
tea" theory, is composed simply of the leaves and
branches of certain shrubs and trees which, like the
scrub oak, vitex, and others, lend themselves to the
adulteration, and for the existence in a wild state of
the genuine tea plant there seems to be no evidence
whatever.

With regard to the domestic tea shrub, again, it
will be observed later on that its cultivation for seed,
and the art of laying out plantations, are secrets and
monopolies of the inhabitants of Mingshan and Yangan
(Yachou-fu), which districts must therefore be consid-
ered the mother colonies of its cultivation. The best tea
produced in Mingshan-hsien, and indeed in Western
Ssuch'uan, grows on the Meng-shan, a mountain 15 li
(5 miles) to the West of the district city. On the
summit of the mountain stands a Buddhist temple, and
the priests who attend on the idol, are also the guard-
ians of a small plantation said to contain seven shrubs

AND THE TEA TRADE WITH TIBET.

only. Tradition has it that these shrubs were planted
during the latter Han dynasty by a pilgrim named Wu
Lichen, who brought the seeds from India (Hsi-yii).
The tea produced by this plantation, amounting
to a few pounds only, is picked annually in the pre-
sence of the territorial officials and forwarded as
tribute to Peking. It is called hsien-ctt a or kung-
ck'a. A tea, known as Meng-ch'a, and reputed very
good, is also grown elsewhere on the mountain, and is
sold to visitors. I have mentioned these curious facts
because they seem to point to an early introduction
of the tea plant from the West, and to confirm the
negative conclusion we have arrived at respecting the
presence of wild tea in Western Ssuch'uan.

It is a popular saying that, in order to get a first
rate cup of tea, you must take "leaves from the Meng-
shan, and water from the Yangtzu". Now, whereas
the Ssuch'uanese have no difficulty in placing the
Meng-shan, they are all adrift about the Yangtzu, and,
preposterous as it may seem, I have often been asked
if I had ever come across a river of that name -in my
travels. Setting aside the much debated question as
to the origin of the name yangtzu and the range of
its applicability, it is obvious that for the purpose
alluded to the ordinary river water can not be meant.
Where then is the famous Yangtzu water to be found?
I take leave to conclude this Introductory chapter
with a reminiscence of my own which may possibly
suggest an answer. Whilst residing at Shanghai I
had occasion to pay a visit to the magistrate of that

10 TEA CULTIVATION IN WESTERN SSUCH'UAN

city. I was entertained with tea which I pronounced
excellent, whereupon my host dilated upon the neces-
sity of using good water for its preparation, and
added that he himself used none but Yangtzu water.
I enquired whence he obtained it, and was told that
it was brought down from Chinkiang by the daily
steamer. Some time afterwards,— I had almost
forgotten the incident, — I visited Chinkiang, and
happened to cross over the bay which divides the
foreign settlement from Golden Island, when I saw
a number of small boats pull out into deep wrater, the
crews fill their buckets, and return to the shore. I
made enquiry and was informed that there was a
famous spring at the bottom of the stream, which had
been known ever since a time when the bed of the
river was dry land. I forget the name of the spring,
but it was said that a stone tablet with an ancient in-
scription had been standing by its side, and had been
removed to an other spring farther inland, when the
Yangtzu began to wash over the old site. The new
spring has since inherited some of the celebrity of the
old; but those conversant with its history are not
thereby deceived, and continue to draw their water
for tea drinking purposes from " the bed of the
Yangtzu."

JM^X

OF THE r \

UNIVERSITY)

OF

**S

AND THE TEA TRADE WITH TIBET.

GENERAL AND HISTORICAL.

Tea is grown very extensively in Ssuch'uan, and it
appears that, with the exception of the mountainous
regions bordering on Tibet, it is cultivated with equal
success in the North, South, East, and West. No
doubt the hilly configuration, good soil, and mild cli-
mate to which Ssuch'uan owes its general prosperity,
are also the conditions most favourable to the planta-
tion of the tea shrub, the successful cultivation of
which is one of the many resources which make the
vaunted independence and self -sufficiency of the prov-
ince in point of supplies more than an idle boast.

In point of quality, Ssuch'uan tea does not seem to
take a high rank, for none is exported abroad, except
to Tibet, and even in the home market Yunnan
(P'uerh) tea obtains a large sale, being considered
superior to the native produce, and patronised by all
the better classes. After paying an Import duty of
Taels 0.40 (is. 2d.) * per pecul (i 33^^03.) at Hsiichou-
fu, and the same at Chungking, [the Yunnan article
sells at the latter place for about Taels 27 (943. 6d.)

* The Tael is calculated as equivalent to 1500 cash, and
to 35. 6d. The pecul = : 100 catties = 133! English fos.
The duty according to tariff is Taels 0.70 per load (140
catties), but a discount of 20 per cent being made, it is
actually only Taels 0.56 per load or 0.40 per pecul. The
wholesale price is Taels 38 per load or about Taels 27 per
pecul.

12 TEA CULTIVATION IN WESTERN SSUCH'UAN

per pecul (say 8Jd. per Tb.), while the best native leaf,
produced in Nanch'uan, t costs only 320 cash a catty
(say 6£d. per tb.). These figures are instructive when
compared with the price of the " brick tea" prepared
for the Tibetan market. It is estimated that Yunnan
tea is imported to the extent of about 1400 peculs
(186,666 Tbs.), J but a certain quantity also finds its
way into Western Ssuch'uan by the Chiench'ang route
which comes out at Yachou-fu.

The quantity of tea produced annually in Ssuch'uan
is a question more of theoretical interest perhaps than
of practical value. Accurate statistics are furnished
by the provincial topography, but that useful and vo-
luminous compendium has unfortunately not been re-
vised since the year 1815, and its figures are therefore
no longer true. A few notices respecting the earlier
history of the tea trade and administration may be,
however, not without interest and are extracted here-
under.

Tea began to be taxed during the T'ang dynasty, a

f The best Nanch'uan tea, called pe-hao, costs 320 cash a
. catty (wholesale) ; the second best, called mao-chien, costs
200 cash a catty. There are cheaper kinds ranging down to
as low as 40 cash a catty, which is the price paid for the so
called lao-ken, made up of twigs and refuse. We shall come
across that term again later on.

% 1000 loads (tan) of 32 barrels (fung) each. A barrel
contains 7 cakes (yuan), weighing 10 ounces. A load is
therefore equivalent to 140 catties.

AND THE TEA TRADE WITH TIBET. 13

tithe of 10 per cent on the production, payable in
kind, being levied from the year 780. During the
Sung the trade was made illegal, and in three provinces
only (among them Ssuch'uan) it continued lawful
within the limits of the province. In 1074 the system
of bartering tea for Tibetan horses on government
account was begun in Shan-hsi, and this is the earliest
mention of the tea trade with Tibet. This trade,
however, remained a government monopoly, and
public bazaars were now established in all the more
important tea districts for the better control of sales
and the collection of the tithe. In order to obviate
the necessary but inconvenient fluctuations of the col-
lection, a new system was subsequently devised, the
yield estimated, the plantations rated, and the tithe
fixed accordingly. But this manner of assessment
was so arbitrary, so open to abuse, and the tax became
so burdensome that a reform became necessary before
long. It was undertaken in 1127, when a system of
permits, to accompany and protect the goods en route,
was introduced, and clandestine conveyance more ef-
ficiently checked. This was the beginning of the per-
mit system, which has remained in force ever since.
As early as the Ming dynasty we read about a coarse
kind of tea, known as chien-tao ts'u-ctia, produced in
Tiao-men (now T'iench'uan-chou) and other places,
and which none but the Hsi-fan used. The Hsi-fan
are the Tibetans of to-day. They used to bring their
horses from Ch'angho-hsi (now Tachienlu) to Aichou-
wei (now Yachou-fu), where they exchanged them for

14 TEA CULTIVATION IN WESTERN SSUCH'lJAN

tea, a colt fetching 70 catties, the best horse 120
catties. During Yunglo (1403 to 1425) the purchase
of horses was discontinued in Ssuch'uan, but was still
carried on in Shanhsi whither the tea surrendered to
the government was transported. The long transport,
however, caused much of the tea to arrive in bad con-
dition, and an order was therefore issued to levy only
one third of the quantity due in kind, and to accept
payment in money for the other two thirds. This is the
first instance of cash payments of tea duties. In
1569, finally, all tea duties of the province were made
payable in silver. So far, when we have spoken of tea
duties, the original tax or tithe on the production was
always understood. When the government monopoly
was abolished, and the tea trade thrown open to mer-
chants, a tea duty (shui) was levied in addition to the
original tithe (k'o), and at the beginning of the present
dynasty Taels 45,942 were collected annually on ac-
count of the former, and Taels 13,128 on account of
the latter. In 1696 sanction was obtained for making
Tachienlu the market where Tibetans accredited by the
Talai-lama were allowed to carry on trade, and to make
their purchases of tea. In 1719 Lit' }ang and Pat' ang
were admitted to the same privilege. In 1743 the
system of taxation was again revised, the permit (yin)
fixed at 100 catties (plus an allowance for waste of 14
per cent) and the tea tax (k}o) raised to Taels 0.125
for every permit. The number of permits was success-
ively increased, a reserve of 5000 blank permits de-
posited with the Governor General, and in 1815, when

AND THE TEA TRADE WITH TIBET. 15

the Topography breaks off, the production and distri-
bution stood as follows :

The annual issue of permits was fixed at 139,354,
of which 92,327 were export permits (pien yin), 31,120
border permits (t'u yin), and 15,907 inland permits
(fu yin). The export permits were again distributed
as follows, viz., 53,004 permits filled up by the Yangan,
Jung-ching and Mingshan districts, and 20,300 per-
mits filled up in Ch'iung-chou : in all 73,304 permits
were for export via Tachienlu ; and 16,346 permits,
filled up by various districts, were for export via
Sungp'an, while 2,677 more were nominally issued for
Sungp'an, but were withheld and disposed of inland.
The border permits were for the supply of the more
proximate native principalities (t'u ssuj on this side
of the two frontier towns named, and the inland per-
mits were, as their name indicates, for the internal
trade.

Each permit wras subject to four kinds of charges,
viz., (a) the original tithe (k'o) Taels 0.125 per per-
mit of every description ; ( b ) the tea duty (shut)
Taels 0.472 for export permits, Taels 0.361 for border
permits, and Taels 0.250 for inland permits ; (c) a
surplus charge (hsien-yu) for administration expenses,
Taels 0.124 for export permits, Taels o.m for border
permits, and Taels 0.098 for inland permits; and (d)
a fee (ch}ie-kuo) for barrier expenses, Taels 0.142 for
export permits, if filled up by the Yangan, Jungching
or Mingshan districts, and Taels 0.186, if filled up by
Ch'iung-chou, for Tachienlu ; Taels o.ioo, if for Sung-

I 6 TEA CULTIVATION IN WESTERN SSUCH'UAN

p'an, and Taels 0.142, if Sungp'an permits disposed of
internally; Taels 0.122 for border permits, and Taels
o.i 20 for inland permits.

The Revenue in 1815 was therefore as under:

Export permits.

T 92,327 @ o-I25 Taels IJ> 540- 875

D @ 0.472 „ 43,578.344

S C @ 0.124 „ 11,448.548

53,oo4@ 0.142 |Tachienlu

20,300 @ o.i86J „ 3,775-8o°

16,346 @ o.ioo-) or ., „ 1,634.600

, ~ungp —
2,677 @ 0.142 J „ 38o-I34

Taels 79,884.869

Border permits.

T 31,120 @ 0.125 Taels 3,890.000

D @ 0.361 „ 11,234.320

S C @ o.i 1 1 „ 3,454.320

F @ 0.122 ,, 3,796.640

Taels 22,375.280

Inland permits.

T 15.907 @ 0.125 Taels i,988-375

D @ 0.250- „ 3,976.750

S C @ 0.098 „ 1,558.886

F @ 0.120 ,, 1,908.840

Taels 9,432.851
Total Tea Revenue (1815) Taels 111,693.000

AND THE TEA TRADE WITH TIBET. 17

The distribution of tea showed the following per-
centages : Export 66, Border 22, Inland 12, while
from a revenue point of view the export trade contrib-
uted 72 per cent, the supply of native principalities 20
per cent., and the home trade only 8 per cent, of the
total collection. Quantitatively, Tachienlu participated
with 79 per cent, Sungp'an with 21 per cent, in the
export trade ; the former with 5j per cent, the latter
with 14 per cent, in the whole tea trade of the prov-
ince. Tachienlu contributed Taels 64,154.552, Sung-
p'an Taels 15,730.317, to the above revenue. In the
following the export trade via Tachienlu wrill occupy
us alone.

ADMINISTRATION AND REVENUE.

When compared with the foregoing statistics, — and
considering that three quarters of a century have
elapsed since they were made, — the figures for the
present tea trade at Tachienlu, and for the revenue
now collected, show a great, but not an abnormal
development.

The Tea and Salt Commissioner (yen-cha tao)
resident at Ch'engtu is the head of the administration
under the Governor General. The permits, under
which the trade is carried on, are issued annually by
the Board of Revenue in Peking, and are returned to
it at the end of the year. The number of permits
allotted to Tachienlu for export North and West is

l8 TEA CULTIVATION IN WESTERN SSUCH'UAN

108,000. After receiving the impression of the Gov-
ernor General's seal, they are transmitted by the Tea
Commissioner to the Sub-prefect (fing, also styled
chiinltang fu, because in charge of the Commissar-
iat), who is the highest civil officer at Tachienlu.
The latter is assisted by two special Deputies (wei-
yuan}, and the three officers are jointly responsible
for the collection of the revenue. The permits are
given out in the second Chinese moon, and called in
in the tenth moon, and any deficiency then existing
must be made good, the blank permits being surren-
dered and cancelled like those filled up. The dues
and duties payable on each permit aggregate Taels
i.io, and the revenue accruing to the central govern-
ment from the tea trade at Tachienlu is therefore
Taels 118,800 per annum. For this sum the Tea
Commissioner is supposed to be accountable to the
Board of Revenue.

Beside the above regular or ordinary permits (yin or
cheng-yin), special permits (p'iao) are issued by the
Tea Commissioner. They are intended to provide
against the contingency of a deficit ; but, since the re-
gular permits are always entirely taken up, the dues
collected on these special permits have really become
a perquisite of the Tea Commissioner. One special
permit is issued for every ten regular ones, that is,
10,800 per annum. They cover the same quantity
of tea, but the dues and duties amount to only Taels
0.80 a piece, and they realise therefore Taels 8.640
per annum.

AND THE TEA TRADE WITH TIBET. IQ

Similarly 5,000 more permits (en-p ' iao) are issued
annually by the Sub-prefect, to ensure himself against
loss, and 3,000 for the benefit of the two Deputies.
These permits pay at the same rate as the last, and
realise Taels 6,400 per annum.

The total number of permits issued every year, and
the actual collection of dues and duties on tea at
Tachienlu is as under :

OP 108,000 @ 1. 10 Taels 118,800

S P 10,800 @ 0.80 „ 8,640

5,000 @ 0.80 ,, 4,000

3,000 @ 0.80 „ 2,400

126,800 Taels 133,840

As a set off against the above facts it should be
mentioned that the central government allows only
the modest sum of Taels 840 per annum for cost of
the tea administration at Tachienlu. This sum pro-
vides for salaries of Taels 300 a year to each of the
two deputies, and of Taels 60 a year each to four
clerks, while the maintenance of a dozen or so of
servants and runners found by the Sub-prefect, and
other incidental expenses in connection with the tea
office are not provided for.

20 TEA CULTIVATION IN WESTERN SSUCH'UAN

DISTRIBUTION OF PERMITS.

The Sub-prefect of Tachienlu receives applications
for permits from the Magistrates of the five districts
which enjoy the privilege of supplying' the tea for the
Tibetan market. In his turn the Magistrate of each
district opens a list of applicants for tea permits in the
second moon every year. In order to obtain these,
merchants must find sureties amongst the respectable
and substantial residents of the district ; and, as the
trade is a highly profitable one, and competition
therefore keen, a considerable outlay is usually con-
nected, in the first place^ with the finding of the
sureties, and, in the next, with getting them accepted.
When the matter has been satisfactorily arranged,
the successful applicants are furnished by the Magis-
trate with documents on presentation of which the
permits are issued by the Sub-prefect of Tachienlu.
The permits are transferable, and do sometimes become
an article of trade in themselves ; but the original
owner remains responsible for the dues payable on
them. All tea transported to Tachienlu must be
accompanied by permits, and the latter are inspected
both at Luting-ch'iao and at the city gates of Ta-
chienlu. But the duties are paid only after sale, when
the permits also are surrendered.

The distribution of the permits amongst the five
privileged districts is according to the following fixed
ratio :

AND THE TEA TRADE WITH TIBET. 21

Ch'iung-chou 27,000

Mingshan-hsien 8,000

T'iench'uan-chou 23,000

Yangan-hsien 27,000

Jungching-hsien 23,000

Total, regular permits 108,000

The distribution of the special permits is not bound
by any rule.

Fa^V,

PRODUCTION.

Each permit covers five packages (pao). The
packages being not exactly uniform, the quantity of
tea annually exported via Tachienlu is a matter for
nice calculation. We will here anticipate, what will
be made apparent hereafter, that the 126,800 permits
annually issued represent peculs 108^80.

The five districts enumerated are not capable of
producing the entire quantity locally, and three more
districts are therefore allowed to participate in the
supply of the raw material, viz. Ch'ingch'i-hsien,
Omei-hsien, and Hungya-hsien. The share taken by
each district in the production of tea for the Tachienlu
market is in round figures as follows :

^>>x
UNIVERSITY)

-- ^S

22 TEA CULTIVATION IN WESTERN SSUCH'UAN

Ch'iung-chou

peculs

19,000

Mingshan

j)

22,000

T'iench'uan

>>

20,000

Yangan

M

12,000

Jungching

) )

9,000

Ch'ingch'i

))

7,000

Omei

J)

8,000

Hungya

))

13,000

Total

peculs

I 10,000

Ch'iung-chou is an independent sub-prefecture ;
Hungya and Omei belong to the prefecture of Chiating,
all the other districts to that of Yachou. Ch'ingch'i
and Omei convey their produce to Jungching; Hungya
to Yangan.

The manufacture of the tea for the Tibetan market,
and the trade, however, are confined to the five dis-
tricts first enumerated, and the quantity of raw material
available to each of these is as under :

Local. Imported. Total.

Ch'iung-chou

19,000

19,000

Mingshan

22,000

22,000

T'iench'uan

20,000

20,000

Yangan

I2,OOO

13,000

25,000

Jungching

9,000

15,000

24,000

Total

peculs

1 10,000

It must not be supposed that this is all genuine
tea; it will be seen, on the contrary, that real tea

AND THE TEA TRADE WITH TIBET. 23

constitutes but the smallest part of the material em-
ployed in the manufacture of tea bricks.

CULTIVATION.

The growing of tea plants for seed is confined to
the districts of Mingshan and Yangan. The seed is
sold by the measure, not by weight, the tou selling
for 400 cash. The art of planting the shrub, and
of laying out tea gardens is likewise a monopoly of
the tea planters of the two districts named, and these
men are hired for that purpose by all the tea growers
of the neighbouring districts. The seed is put into
the ground within ten days of the yushui period
(about igth February). A hill slope, not too elevated
neither too low, is usually selected, and small hand-
fuls of the seed are buried in rows, some two feet
apart. But I have also seen plants growing as bor-
ders to fields, or dotted in irregular clusters about
the farm houses. The labour is not paid for at once,
but only after the lapse of three years, and it is then
paid for according to results, that is to say, if one,
two, three, or four plants only are found alive in one
cluster after that period, no remuneration is due ; but
if five or more plants are found alive, then one cash
is paid for each plant. Nine or ten is the greatest
number of plants ever found in one cluster.

The tea shrubs which, during the earlier stages of

24 TEA CULTIVATION IN WESTERN SSUCH'UAN

growth, generally share the soil with some other prod-
uce, mostly maize, ordinarily attain to a height of 2
or 3 feet, and seldom reach to a man's shoulder.
They are left much to themselves until they are four
years old when the first crop is taken. The picking
commences in February and ceases in June. It pro-
ceeds progressively downwards from the top. The
young buds and tips (Men) form the first and finest
crop ; the young but fullgrown leaves the second (hsi-
ch'a), and the coarser foliage the third crop (t^u-cti a).
The picking is continued for three years, after which
the plants cease to sprout, and when therefore they
are cut down, stem, branches and all, to make room
for a new plantation. This last crop is known as
lao-ken. On larger plantations, where home labour
is insufficient, extra pickers are hired who earn, beside
food and lodging, one cash per catty of 18 ounces.
There is no restriction to the planting or growing of
tea, nor is the preparation of the leaf for home use
or market, or the sale thereof within the district at
all interfered with. The better qualities are very
carefully prepared, but find no sale in non-Chinese
territories, and are either consumed locally, or traded
in under inland permits. The local market quotations
are as under :

Wholesale. Retail.

ist Quality Cash 320 per catty Cash 420 per catty
2nd „ „ 240 „ „ 320

3rd „ „ 180 „ ,, 220

AND THE TEA TRADE WITH TIBET. 25

a catty being always equivalent to 18 ounces in the
tea trade. I quote these prices in order to show
that the very lowest of them is more than five times
the value of the tea made into "bricks" for con-
sumption in Tibet and elsewhere. *

For the manufacture of the so called " brick tea "
for Tibet, the first and second qualities are not em-
ployed at all, and the third quality enters into it to
a very limited extent. The bulk of the material is
made up of the lao-ken, consisting of stems, branches,
and the coarsest of leaves only, admixed with a great
quantity of twigs and branches of certain other trees
and shrubs, such as the scrub oak (cK ing-kang) y a
vitex (huang-ching), a tree called chiian-tzu, and
others, wrhich are not planted at all, but the branches
of which are simply cut off and collected like brush-
wood in the forests. This brushwood is known as
ye-ken, and is collected all the year round. Gener-
ally the tea planters who sell the lao-ken, supply the

* To declare, as some have done, that the Chinese keep
all the better teas for themselves, and supply the merest refuse
to the Tibetans whom they regard as savages who know no
better, is, I need hardly point out, a shortsighted view to
take. The Chinese, so far as I know them, would be only
too glad to sell to the Tibetans, or to any other savages,
whatever these will pay for. It has never before been clearly
shown how dirt cheap the stuff is, which the Tibetans drink,
compared even with very common Chinese tea. Moreover,
it seems really as if the Tibetans did not care for better teas,
even if they could pay for them.

26 TEA CULTIVATION IN WESTERN SSUCH'UAN

ye-ken also. Both are stacked in the open air, like
firewood, until dried by the sun. They are sold by
the bundle (Kim), the lao-ken weighing 160 catties
of 32 or 33 ounces each per bundle, the ye-ken 178 cat-
ties of 33 or 34 ounces each per bundle. The former
sells for 32 cash a catty, the latter for 12 or 13 cash
a catty. As the farmers have neither the knowledge
of, nor the appliances for, preparing the tea for ex-
port, the material is sold to the factories. The trans-
port to the latter, calculated at the rate of 3 cash a
bundle for every li, is defrayed by the buyers.

MANUFACTURE.

The country produce having been bought up and
conveyed to town, is prepared in the factories for the
Tibetan market. The process of preparation as I saw
it in Yachou-fu is exceedingly simple. The lao-ken
and the ye-ken are both chopped fine, and dried once
more in that state. They are then mixed in a certain
proportion and steamed in large wooden tubs. The
mass is spread out on clean mats, and, wrhen super-
ficially dry, rice water (chiang) is added to it in
sufficient quantity to make it adhesive. When thor-
oughly stirred the "tea" is now ready for packing.
The packing is done in this manner. First a number
of small parcels are made, containing 4 ounces of
tea of a better quality, and done up in red paper.
Sheets of bamboo matting of the proper length and

AND THE TEA TRADE WITH TIBET. 27

breadth have been got ready in the meantime, and
pasted over on the inside with ordinary white paper.
They are rolled into the shape of a cylinder, and one
end being closed up with one of the red parcels
described, the tea mixture is packed in tightly from
the other. The package is finally closed up with a
second parcel in red paper, and the mat covering
sewn up. *

There are two kinds of packages (pao) turned out,
one of a trifling better quality, i.e., with a somewhat
larger proportion of tea in it, weighing about 16
catties ; and the other of inferior quality weighing
about 1 8 catties. The former kind is destined for
exportation to the native principalities Northwest of
Tachienlu ; the latter for exportation to Lit'ang, Pa-
t'ang, and Tibet proper. The cost per package of
the two qualities is exactly the same, the superi-
ority in quality of the one being compensated for
by the larger weight of the other.

It is calculated that about 35 per cent of cultivated
tea, and 65 per cent of brushwood enter into the
composition of the tea exported via Tachienlu, and
that the mixture costs the manufacturer, inclusive of
prime cost, transport to factory, labour of chopping,
steaming, &c., but exclusive of packing, 32 cash a
catty (about two thirds of a penny a Ife.)

* In Jungching, apparently, according to Mr. Baber, the
tea is not hand packed, but pressed in wooden moulds. I
have not seen that process myself, nor any of the " bricks "
turned out by it.

28 TEA CULTIVATION IN WESTERN SSUCH'UAN

An expert packer requires no scales, but will pack
exactly 16, resp. 18, catties into one package. The
remuneration of the men employed in steaming and
packing, which is considered skilled labour, is 100
cash, that of the men employed in stoking, chopping,
preparing the starch, and sewing the packages, is 60
cash per diem. The workmen are divided in six classes,
and there is strict division of labour. The mat covering
for each package costs 40 cash, and the paper lining
12 cash.

All the tea prepared in the manner detailed is taken
to Tachienlu for sale. The term " brick " so frequently
applied to it, is, as has been pointed out, quite inap-
propriate. The package resembles a brick neither in
shape nor in consistency. It has been said that it
should be called brick (chuan) only after it has been
cut in two, as is sometimes done at Tachienlu for con-
venience of transport. But I have just as often seen
the original packages leave Tachienlu, especially by
the Northern route.

TRANSPORT.

There are two roads from Yachou-fu to Tachienlu.
The main road runs Southwest to Jungching, thence
across the Tahsiang-ling to Ch'ingch'i and again across
the Feiyiie-ling to Hualin-p'ing, where it strikes the
valley of the Taitu-ho. It follows the left bank of that

AND THE TEA TRADE WITH TIBET. 29

river Northwards to Luting-ch'iao, a small but busy
settlement, where all the traffic from and to Tachienlu
makes halt. The iron suspension bridge which spans
the river at this place, is the only connection between
the right and the left bank of the Taitu-ho above its
Eastward bend, and navigation is impossible for all
ordinary craft, owing to the strong current of the river.*
Luting ch'iao is therefore an important barrier. After
crossing the bridge, the right bank is followed North
to the entrance of the Lu-ho, where the road turns
West and follows that stream to Tachienlu.

The smaller and shorter road goes from Yachou
West north west to T'iench'uan, and thence almost
due West across two not very high, but exceed-
ingly steep mountain ranges which probably connect
with those met with on the Southern route, until finally
it comes out on the left bank of the Taitu-ho, some 10
li above Luting-ch'iao. Although shorter than the

* The natives (Tibetans) use coracles. With the aid of
this light and primitive craft they cross the swiftest current
easily and safely. Shaped like a nutshell, but rather wider
at the bottom than round the edge, the coracle (p* i-cK uan)
consists of a stout wooden frame over which the raw hide of
a buffalo or yak is tightly drawn. The inconsiderable weight
is essential, but the real secret of the construction lies in the
distribution of the weight, which is all at the bottom of the
boat, where the people taking passage crouch, or which may
be ballasted with stones. At the end of the journey the cor-
acle is easily lifted unto a man's shoulder and carried along
until again required.

30 TEA CULTIVATION IN WESTERN SSUCHJUAN

main road, this route is much more toilsome, and for
heavily laden porters the time occupied in the journey
is very nearly the same, though, if travelling without
baggage, two days can be gained between Tachienlu
and Yachou.

The distances to Tachienlu from each of the manu-
facturing towns are as follows :

Ch'iung-chou Short route 510 li.

Mingshan Long „ 570 „,

Yangan „ „ 540 „

T'iench'uan ,, ,, 480 ,,

Jungching „ „ 450 „

It is optional for porters to take whichever route
they prefer. The portage is reckoned per permit (of
5 packages), and is noted hereunder. But it must be
explained that these fees are nominal only and are
subject in each case to a deduction of 20 per cent.
This is expressed by the term pa ts'e suan. One half
of the portage is paid in advance, the other half on
delivery.

Nominal. Actual.

Ch'iung-chou Taels 1.30 Taels 1.04

Mingshan ,, 1.70 ,, 1.36

Yangan ,, 1.30 ,, 1.04

T'iench'uan „ i.io ,, 0.88

Jungching ,, 0.90 ,, 0.72

An able bodied man is said to be capable of carrying
the equivalent of three permits (15 packages == 240
to 270 catties, or 320 to 360 Ifos.), but from my own

AND THE TEA TRADE WITH TIBET. 31

experience I should have judged 11 or 12 packages
(250 to 280 tbs.) to be the usual quantity carried by a
grown up person. The manner in which these porters
proceed en route has been frequently described and
depicted.

On arrival at Luting-ch'iao the goods are examined,
and the permits inspected and stamped by the Assistant
Magistrate (hsun-chien-ssu or you-t' ang) of that place.
A fee of 1 8 cash per permit is collected for this office.
The porters do not carry their heavy loads across the
bridge themselves, but these are unstrung, and the
packages carried across one by one, by a special class
of men who are always in attendance. One cash per
package is paid for this service. After crossing the
bridge the porters readjust their burdens and continue
their journey to Tachienlu. The incidental expenses
enumerated are borne by the owners, and are not in-
cluded in the portage.

SALE,

On entering Tachienlu the tea is tallied and regist-
ered by one of the Deputies at the city gate. It is
then taken to one of the warehouses (c'ha-tien) where
it awaits sale. There are 36 Chinese warehouses in
the city, and 48 packing establishments (kuo-chuang)
which are Tibetan. The merchants who do a large
amount of business usually have their own warehouses,

32 TEA CULTIVATION IN WESTERN SSUCH'UAN

while others are obliged to make temporary use of
those existing, and in that case one cash is paid for
storage (fang-huo-ctt ien) . There are yet other mer-
chants who, having secured permits, do not possess
the capital for doing business themselves, and who
loan their permits to second parties. Taels 200 are
usually paid for this friendly act for every 1000 per-
mits, besides all charges payable thereon to the gov-
ernment.

The Tibetans who live in the kuo-chuang pay neither
rent nor storage, board or lodging, but it is understood
that the proprietors of these establishments receive a
commission of 8 per cent on every business transaction
which takes place on their premises. The buying is
done almost entirely by women, the men being the
while pressed into service by the native chief of the
principality in which Tachienlu is situated, who is
styled Mingcheng t'u-ssu, and is sometimes errone-
ously called "the king of Tachienlu" by foreign writers.

When a purchase has been made, the tea is some-
times repacked. The mat covering is in that case
removed, and the solid contents cut into two " bricks "
which are encased in hide casings. This work is
performed by a special class of men, who receive no
remuneration beyond the cast off matting and the two
small parcels in red, containing 8 ounces of tea.

The seller proceeds to the Deputy's office, and
surrenders the permits for the quantity of tea sold,
paying at the same time the amount due thereon.

The price paid at Tachienlu for each package, large

AND THE TEA TRADE WITH TIBET. 33

or small, is Rupees 5, and this value is subject to
hardly any fluctuation. As stated before, the smaller
and somewhat superior packages are exported to the
native principalities Northwest of Tachienlu (Gata,
Tawu, Horchangku, Derge, &c.). They leave Tachien-
lu by the North gate, and amount to 53,400 permits
annually. The larger packages of inferior quality are
for export to Lit'ang, Pat'ang, and Tibet proper.
They leave Tachienlu by the West gate, and represent
7j,^oo permits per annum.

Tachienlu is situated at the confluence of the two
head waters of the Lu-ho, the Dar and the Che, whence
the name Darchedo, of which Tachienlu is obviously a
corruption. The Dar springs from the Cheto (Jeddo)
pass, Southwest of Tachienlu, and on the main road
to Tibet, whilst the Che-ch'u (ch'u is a stream) de-
scends from the Haitzu-shan, Northwest of Tachienlu,
on the route to Ch'inghai (Kokonoor). Little was
known about this route until in 1889 Mr. Rockhill
accomplished the journey, although he was not the
first foreigner to have performed it, having been pre-
ceded by the Pundit A k, an intrepid Hindu

in the employ of the Trigonometral Survey depart-
ment of India.

Chinese tea merchants do not venture beyond Ta-
chienlu. In the Northwestern principalities tea seems
to be largely bought on behalf of the native chieftains
tributary to China ; whilst in Tibet proper the priest-
hood appear to monopolise the trade entirely. In this
connection I was informed that a custom which con-

34 TEA CULTIVATION IN WESTERN SSUCH'UAN

tributes largely to the consumption of tea in Tibetan
countries is the free distribution of the "su-ch'a n
("buttered tea") on certain festival days, notably on
the 2oth of the loth Chinese moon. I have no doubt
the " general teas " or " mang ja ", mentioned by
Rockhill (Op. cit. p. 104) must be meant.

SUMMARY.

We are only now in possession of all the facts
necessary for calculating with any degree of precision
the quantity of tea annually exported via Tachienlu,
and the value of that trade.

We have seen (p. 18 f.) that the whole trade is
represented by 108,000 regular permits, and 18,800
special permits, in all by 126,800 parmits ; that the
duty paid on each regular permit is Taels i.io, and
on each special permit Taels 0.80 ; that the collection
of duties on the former is therefore Taels 118,800, on
the latter Taels 15,040, and the total collection Taels
133,840 per annum.

We have seen (p. 33) that the equivalent of 73,400
permits is reexported from Tachienlu to the West, and
the equivalent of 53,400 permits to the North ; that,
while each permit covers 5 packages, the packages are
not uniform in weight, those going West weighing 18
catties, those going North 16 catties each. The per-
mits for the Western trade therefore represents 90

AND THE TEA TRADE WITH TIBET. 35

'

catties, that for the Northern trade 80 catties ; and we

have as the

Total quantity of tea exported via Tachienlu
73,400 permits @ 0,90 = peculs 66,060 West
53,400 „ @ 0.80 = „ 42,720 North

Total peculs 108,780

The first of these figures, peculs 66,060, or tbs.
8,808,000, covers not only the whole supply of Tibet
proper, but that also of the principalities of Lit'ang
and Pat'ang.

We have seen (p. 27) that the above quantity is

made up of 35 per cent of cultivated tea of the lowest

class, and of 65 per cent of wild shrubs. The pro-

>ortion of these two constituents is therefore as under

Cultivated tea 35% peculs 38,073
Wild shrubs 65% „ 70,707

Total peculs 108,780

For the places of production and the distribution of
permits I refer to p. 22 and 21 respectively

We have seen (p. 27) that the cost price of the
manufactured article, exclusive of packing is Cash 32
per catty, and we have therefore to set down for

Prime Cost.

Peculs 108,780 @ 32 cash a catty = (1,000) 348,096 @

0.80 = Taels 278,476.80.

For packing, toll at Luting-ch'iao, and other inci-
dental expenses it is calculated that cash 66 per pack-

36 TEA CULTIVATION IN WESTERN SSUCH'UAN

age, or cash 330 per permit are paid. We have thus
for

Packing, cJc.,

126,800 permits 1@ 330 cash = (1000) 41,844 @

0.80 = Taels 33,475.20

Taking as our basis Yachou-fu, whence the portage
to Tachienlu is nominally Taels 1.30, actually only
Taels 1.04, per permit, we get for
Transport ',

126,800 permits @ 1.04 = Taels 131,872.

Adding to this the amount payable for
Dues and Duties,

Taels 133,840,

we obtain as the

Net value of the trade,

that is, of the tea, laid down at Tachienlu, duty paid,
but exclusive of profits,

Taels 576,864,

In order to obtain the

Gross Value (incl. of profits) ,

we have only to multiply the number of packages by
five, to get the value in Rupees which exchange for
Taels 0.32 of silver, thus

126,800 permits @ 5 = packages 634,000 @ 5 =
Rupees 3,170,000, @ 0.32 =

Taels 1,014,400.

The profit annually made in the trade is therefore

AND THE TEA TRADE WITH TIBET. 37

Taels 437,536, a result which is in perfect accord with
the statement I have heard made that an investment
f Taels 20,000 will return from Taels 35,000 to
36,000. It is evident from this that the privilege to
participate in the trade is a valuable one, and one not
easily obtained ; and it is apparent also why the per-
mits are always taken up so eagerly and to their full
margin.

CONCLUSION.

I was told by an official well acquainted with Tibetan
affairs that the principal objection to the opening up
of Tibet on the Indian side is the loss to China of the
tea trade, which would inevitably follow. With less
information at my command, I am yet inclined to chal-
lenge that oft repeated apprehension.

In the first place it is questionable whether the
aversion which is said to be now professed by Tibetans
to the stronger Indian beverage can be overcome,
whether it is not more than mere habit, and whether
the Indian tea would "take" in that country.

We must give our consideration, in the next place,
to the point of cost. We have seen that the package
weighing 18 catties is sold at Tachienlu for Rupees 5,
or (@ 0.32) Taels 1.60, that is, at the rate of Taels
8.88 a pecul. The last value is equivalent to about,
2|d. a Ife. This, it will be remembered, includes about
75 per cent profit, a rate of interest capable, it will be

38 TEA CULTIVATION IN WESTERN SSUCH'UAN

admitted, of some reduction. In any case, for pur-
poses of comparison, we must take not this, but the
net value, which we have seen to be, for duty paid tea
laid down at Tachienlu, fos??M^ or Taels 5.30 a pecul.
This value is equivalent to about i^d. a tb. The same
tea we have seen to be worth, at place of production,
32 cash a catty, or less than 3 farthings a tb. Is it
possible to produce anywhere in India tea that will
compete for cheapness with the stuff, now sold as tea
to, and so highly prized by, the Tibetans ? Moreover,
if Indian tea is even admitted into Tibet, it will proba-
bly be subject to some sort of duty, and, no matter
whether the Tachienlu rate be adopted, which is about
52d. a pecul, or the maritime tariff, which is about as
much again (io5d.), the tea would have to cost little
more than a penny a tb. to compete with the present
article in point of cost.

Our next consideration will be the cost of transport.
It may be thought that, where distances are shorter, a
saving in carriage will enable Indian teas to compete
with the " brick tea " of China, and, with certain limit-
ations, this may be true. According to M. Desgodins
(La Mission du Thibet p. 300), it would appear that
the transport from Tachienlu to Pat'ang about doubles
the price, trebles it at Ch'amuto, and quadruples it at
Lasa. If this is so, the package of 1 8 catties would
be worth Rup. 20 at Lasa, that is i id. a tb. It is for
the commercial world of India to ascertain whether
their teas could be laid down in Lasa at that figure ;
but I think that, beyond that city, that is on the Chi-

^i^X

OF THE r \

UNIVERSITY)

OF

AND THE TEA TRADE WITH TIBET. 39

nese side of it, there is hardly any danger of their
competition, for, in proportion as their prices would
advance, the Chinese prices would fall. What is here
contended for, is not, that Indian tea may not be in-
troduced with advantage into the ulterior parts of
Tibet, but that Chinese tea will maintain itself in the
proximate. In this opinion I am glad to find more that
I am supported by Mr. Baber, whose remarks at the
end of his valuable paper (R. G. S. Supplementary
Papers Vol. I. Part I. p. 199) are highly instructive.
It is also pointed out by that author that the supply of
tea in Tibet tails much short of the demand, and that
the trade is therefore capable of great development.
His remarks become even more forcible when it is
observed that his estimate of the tea supply going to
Tibet proper is rather too high although considerably
below the total for the trade at Tachienlu, because the
quantity going to the Northern principalities seems to
have escaped his notice. The Tibetan trade, including
that of Lit'ang and Pat'ang, we have seen to be under
9 million Its., and it represents at Tachienlu a value
of Rupees 1,835,000, or £ 102,760. That figure, I
should think, would hardly be affected by Indian com-
petition, and the " tea question " as put in the opening
of this concluding chapter, is to my mind either a de-
lusion or a blind.

There is one point, however, which does not seem
to have occurred to any of the writers on the subject,
and which may yet be worthy of a passing notice.
Commodities so necessary to a state as tea and salt,

40 TEA CULTIVATION IN WESTERN SSUCH'UAN.

may, if the supply thereof be monopolised by any one
country, become a powerful lever for maintaining the
political influence in that country. Without distinctly
formulating that principle, the Chinese seem to have
acted upon it. They have not forced their produce
upon the Tibetans, but have conceded to them as a
privilege that they might come and purchase it at their
frontier towns ; and this privilege has even been with-
drawn once or twice, temporarily, in the case of prin-
cipalities which had proved refractory. Again, instead
of flooding the country with tea as we should be in-
clined to do, the Chinese have limited the supply and
kept it below demand. The exclusive dependence on
China for this important commodity seems to me a
political factor not to be underrated, and I believe that,
if the monopoly of the tea trade were to be don£ away
with, much of the Chinese influence in Tibet would be
gone also.

Printed in Holland.

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